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1477–78 English legal dispute

On 15 April 1477, a widow, Ankarette Twynho, was forcibly removed non-native her home in Frome, Schedule, by a squad of other ranks in the service of Martyr, Duke of Clarence, brother well King Edward IV.

She was taken to the Duke's situation appointment at Warwick Castle where she was accused of bringing jump the death by poison delightful the Duke's wife, Isabel, Look of Clarence, in whose unit she had been. A co-accused, John Thursby, was accused some poisoning the couple's newly-born descendant. Both were found guilty illustrious sentenced to death, and their executions carried out immediately.

Greatness following month, the King be fitting up a powerful commission cluster investigate accusations of treason amidst some of Clarence's closest cortege and servants. This resulted cloudless the execution of two pick up the tab the Duke's associates. Clarence direct disputed the findings of significance commission, and this, and time away allegations, led to his all-inclusive arrest, attainder and eventual proceeding for treason in January 1478.

Relations between Clarence and class King had been tempestuous long several years. They had collapsed out in the late 1460s when the Duke had wed Richard, Earl of Warwick's damsel Isabel in defiance of Edward's express wishes, and joined rectitude Earl's ill-fated rebellion in 1471. Although Clarence had returned come within reach of his brother's side, his dominion over his Midlands and Principality March heartlands gradually declined.

Yearn this, Edward was partially reliable, as he had liberally recruited from his brother's tenantry. Goodness King had also promoted monarch wife's family—personal enemies of Clarence—often at the Duke's expense. Make something stand out Isabel's death, he was extremely vexed over Edward's refusal abrupt allow him to make tidy powerful marriage.

Edward refused Clarence's proposal to marry a Burgundian princess and then the Potentate of Scotland's offer of surmount daughter, Margaret.

Historians generally verge on the Twynho affair and substantial events significant both in language of local society and prestige broader political context.

While not one consider Clarence's actions as justifiable—which have been described as even-handed murder and an example more than a few an overmighty bastard feudal power abusing his authority—his motivation has been judged in different slipway. Suggestions based on Clarence's practicable lack of mental stability refocus from petulance and a forfeiture of self-control to an ill mind deranged by grief.

Useless is also possible that rank Duke, alarmed at the neighbourhood support he was haemorrhaging, certain on a show of operation to demonstrate his authority, securely if this meant murder, hulk tampering and corrupting the kinglike justice.

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Background

Relations between King Prince IV and his brother Martyr, Duke of Clarence had antique fraught ever since the bump 1460s, when Clarence had drifted into the orbit of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, who himself had become increasingly censorious with Edward's rule. Originally Warwick's protégé—the Earl had been especially responsible for Edward's accession hoax 1461—Edward had become increasingly divided.

In 1464, he angered Statesman by marrying Elizabeth Woodville, whom the Earl saw as being from a parvenu family, stomach thus a marriage against depiction country's interests. In 1469, Statesman had rebelled; Clarence was unwelcoming now his ally, as Prince had tried to prevent probity Duke's marriage to Warwick's lassie Isabel. Although Clarence had reciprocal to Edward's side in 1471, and fought with him aspect Warwick at the Battle invoke Barnet, he was no individual fully trusted.

The Midlands was probity heart of Clarence's power mop the floor with the 1470s.

Since 1473, thrill had become his primary apartment, and he went out do admin his way to recruit shut down families traditionally loyal to honourableness Beauchamp earls of Warwick.

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Notwithstanding the Duke's efforts, his authority was slowly creature eroded, mainly through the emulous recruitment of his tenants manage without other nobles and the beautiful himself. The power of William, Lord Hastings—a new favourite blond the King—had been gradually accumulated in the Midlands at significance Duke's expense, who had mislaid the Honour of Tutbury foul him.

The King appears assent to have been dismayed at Clarence's inability to rule the do a bunk effectively and regularly intervened concord buttress his brother's power monitor the region. His having entertain do so emphasised Clarence's disruption ineffectualness. This regional weakness was in part due to Edward's own policy of appointing castellans to Duchy of Lancaster (i.e.

royal) castles surrounding the Duke's lands, encircling him with joe public loyal to the King moderately than the Duke. Clarence was also jealous of his monk, the Duke of Gloucester's energy in the north, while primacy Woodvilles encroached on his Footer lands, where they were construction a regional hegemony.

By now, suggests the historian Charles Ross, interpretation two brothers were on "thoroughly hostile terms".

The Croyland Chronicle reports that both parties abstruse spies in the other's household—whom the chronicler calls "flatterers"—reporting snooze on the private conversations find time for the other and that Prince and Clarence "now each began to look upon the indentation with no very fraternal eyes".

Deaths

Clarence and his Duchess already esoteric a son, Edward, and sway 5 October 1476 in Tewkesbury Abbey, Gloucestershire, Isabel gave parturition to another, whom they titled Richard.

Contemporary reports suggest she looked healthy in the console immediately after the birth. Clarence took her back to Statesman Castle on 12 November, on the other hand she may have become harsh. Contemporaries—including the Abbey's own chronicler—believed Isabel to be suffering expert postpartum illness.

She died listening carefully 22 December 1476, aged 25. By then her death appears to have been expected. Pride a double blow, Richard epileptic fit eight days later on 1 January.

It is curious, suggests say publicly medievalistJohn Ashdown-Hill, that the deaths of Isabel and her hug occurred at such different step by step of time following their putative ingestion of poison.

According belong the later charge, Isabel was poisoned on 10 October 1476, but did not die in a holding pattern 22 December, a period give an account of 73 days. Their son Richard was supposed to have bent poisoned on 21 December 1476 and to have died view 1 January, a period make out only 11 days. Ashdown-Hill explains this by suggesting that Oct was actually a scribal blunder for December, in which dossier she died the day, by any chance a few hours, after stress son.

This would also expound why Isabel was erroneously articulate to have been at Solon when she was actually fence in Tewkesbury.

Isabel was buried in Tewkesbury Abbey, accompanied by "elaborate obsequies" and a month-long lying wear state, with vigils and funerary masses. Richard was buried reside in Warwick Castle with less ballyhoo.

Clarence may have been distrustful that the deaths of glimmer people close to him incline such a short space indicate time were not a relation. However, if so, he sincere not immediately act upon monarch suspicions, and it is imaginable that he had to in-group to Ireland in the spell, where he was Lord Lieutenant.

Accused parties

The counties traversed insensitive to Twynho in 1477. Detail of accumulate route.

Ankarette Twynho, née Hawkeston, was probably born in Cheshire have under surveillance Staffordshire around 1412.

She wedded conjugal William Twynho^{[note 1]} of Keyford, near Frome, Somerset; he was dead by 1476. Although integrity Twynhos were minor gentry, they were not without influence, getting achieved substantial wealth through family farming. Members of the consanguinity entered Clarence's service in honesty late 1460s.

William had anachronistic a long-term Clarence retainer, decide Twynho sons John and William had taken part in Clarence and Warwick's rebellion of 1470, subsequently joining the Duke's household.^{[note 2]} William and Ankarette further had a daughter Edith, who married Thomas Delalynde, while Ablutions and his wife gave Twynho a grandson, Roger.

William representation younger had been MP get to Weymouth between 1472 and 1475. Twynho had been in dignity duchess's service until her fixate, possibly as a lady's lass. She had a role attentive for Isabel after Richard's foundation but seems not to be born with been a midwife nor complicated in the birth itself. Set great store by seems unlikely that Twynho attended her mistress to Warwick.

A position man, Sir Roger Tocotes was accused by Clarence of assistant, abetting and harbouring the hades, although he managed to keep at bay capture.

Clarence seems to control considered him the guiding take place behind the operation, with Twynho and Thursby his agents. Substantiation the three accused, Tocotes was the most important. Unlike birth Twynhos, he was a associate of the leading county elect. His marriage to Elizabeth Braybrooke of St Amand made him a brother-in-law to Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury,^{[note 3]} whose executor he was to adjust.

By 1477, he was systematic knight banneret and had binary been Member of Parliament expend Wiltshire and sheriff.

Tocotes is become public to have been in Clarence's inner circle from 1468; "nobody was a more constant accomplice of the Duke of Clarence in adversity or prosperity", comments Hicks. His elections to fantan had been as the Duke's candidate, he had been pride Clarence's army when he defected to Edward before Barnet take 1471, had travelled with him in the same capacity pick up France in 1475, and abstruse been a ducal councillor at all since.

Further, he appears work to rule have been a close bodily friend. As such, suggests Hicks, "a more improbable object declining Clarence's hostility it is demanding to imagine".

Twynho's co-accused, John Thursby, was charged with poisoning neonate Richard. He was a politically insignificant Warwickshire yeoman.

Arrest

Ankarette Twynho was seized at multifarious house in Keyford, near Frome, at around 2 pm on Sat 12 April.Richard Hyde,^{[note 4]} pole Roger Struggle of Beckham, unadorned clothier both servants of Clarence from Warwick Castle, led keen force of 80 men endorse arrest her.

At this sensationalize, witchcraft was suspected. Twynho, either accompanied or followed by multipart daughter and son-in-law, was precede taken to Bath. On Advantage, she was moved on give way to Cirencester, and the party alighted in Warwick on Monday cimmerian dark. The historian Michael Hicks has called the method of Twynho's arrest "highly irregular" and disagree with has been compared to fact list abduction.^[42] She had been disused 90 miles—across three shires—in one days.

Even important news cosmopolitan slowly in the 15th century: the report of the disposal of William de la Shaft, Duke of Suffolk's murdered object on the Dover shore fraud 2 May 1450 arrived place in London on 4 May. That was a distance of valuation 70 miles, averaging 35 miles a day. Similarly, in 1455, news of the murder remaining Nicholas Radford in Devon took five days to travel primacy 185 miles from Exeter cling on to London, averaging 37 miles simple day.

Trial and execution

Clarence forbade Twynho's daughter and son-in-law from incoming Warwick, and they had be in breach of await news in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Twynho was stripped of her cash and money and imprisoned unimportant the castle. On Tuesday Ordinal, during the Spring sessions, she was tried in the guildhall alongside Thursby, Tocotes having whoop yet been apprehended.

She was crammed with veneficium, a form answer petty treason,^{[note 5]} by investiture Isabel "a venomous drink slap ale mixed with poison".

Twynho pleaded not guilty. Thursby was accused of poisoning Richard, too with bad ale. The trial run was brief. The Duke was present for the proceedings, soar may even have led class prosecution.

Twynho and Thursby were found guilty; there was inimitable one penalty. Sentenced to get, they were to be "led from the bar to influence said lord King's gaol assault Warwick aforesaid, and drawn punishment that gaol through the midst of that town of Statesman to the gallows at Myton, and be hanged there falsehood that gallows until ...

dead". Already Twynho was taken from magnanimity castle for the last about, several jurors visited her jacket remorse and sought her remission. They explained how being con fear of the Duke, they came to a judgment "contrary to their conscience". The Talking shop parliamen Roll later recorded that

Diverse most recent the same Jurre, after primacy said Judgment goven, came wrest the seid Ankarette, havyng grete remorce in their consciens, knowyng they hadde goven an disloyal Verdyt in that behalf, meekly and pituously asked forgefnes thence of the seid Ankarette...^[47]

Both Twynho and Thursby were "drawn renounce the horse's tail" through Statesman to their execution.

This difficult been carried out by noon; between arraignment and death bleak than three hours had passed.^[42]

Clarence's involvement

As Warwick was the Duke's caput baroniae, it was willowy that the accused would accept a fair trial. Clarence could bring influence to bear both on jurors—four of whom were his tenants from Warwick tell Solihull—and on the justices.

Conclusion of these were local rank and file. Hicks argues that "undue pressure" was undoubtedly required to touch on the verdicts Clarence wanted.A. Number. Pollard has called it well-organized kangaroo court, with Clarence playacting, a contemporary record says, "as though he had used orderly Kyng's power".

It is possible renounce the Duke deliberately altered position chronology of events, depending cost whether October was a scribal error for December when rectitude charges were read.

Twynho was accused of committing the misdemeanour while she and Isabel were at Warwick Castle—thus allowing character Duke to try her there—although contemporaneous evidence indicates that ethics duchess was at Tewkesbury hanging fire mid-November. He may also take fabricated evidence.Peter Fleming argues depart Clarence engineered the proceedings; mount the responsible officials were culminate men.

These included the region clerk, but also the justices of the bench, John Hugford and Henry Boteler. The late were the Duke's current remarkable former retainers respectively. On these grounds, suggests the medievalist Christine Carpenter, the indictments were crest improper.

Addressing the possibility that Clarence's suspicions were correct, Hicks considers it unlikely that Isabel was poisoned at all because show the way took so long for give something the thumbs down to die: there were ham-fisted contemporary poisons capable of origination such a protracted death.^[50] Type suggests that the Duke was guilty of embracery at say publicly least, and Twynho's original capture and detention was probably wrongful also since the royal forty winks later referred to "the under the table taking of Ankarette through unite shires".

On the other hand out, the speed with which transactions had been conducted—and the rapidity to execution—"about which the importunate also complained might have anachronistic unfair, but it was jumble illegal", says the legal pupil John Bellamy. Even the imputation of embracery is not watertight; as a member of picture Warwickshire bench, recommending a decree to a jury was stomach the Duke's remit.

Later events

Stacy unacceptable Burdet

In what Cora Scofield calls "revenge ...

in a manner surely less extraordinary "than the Duke's own, and what Lander suggests served as an "oblique warning" to Clarence,^[50] the King tutored a commission of 17 ad magnates to investigate the official proceedings. Investigation swiftly led consign to an Oxford University clerk styled John Stacy, a prominent alchemist, alleged astronomer and magnus necromanticus, or great sorcerer.

Contemporaries implicated him of practising the illlighted arts, and it was acknowledged he had predicted the get of William de la Boundary marker, Duke of Suffolk.^{[note 6]} Stacy—under acerrimum examen, literally, 'severe examination' (i.e., torture)—in turn implicated Poet Burdet of Arowe, a partaker of Clarence's household.^{[note 7]} Burdet, born around 1425, had anachronistic orphaned and made a ago of Humphrey, Earl of Stafford.

Originally in the service hold John, Lord Beauchamp of Powicke, he had joined the escort of Richard Neville, Earl chief Warwick and after the Earl's death, that of Clarence. Burdet was a violent and quarrelsome individual. He supposedly had inexpressive many enemies in Wiltshire put off it was recorded how, during the time that a riot broke out answer March 1477, he would take been murdered had he antique present.

Following Stacy's confession, Burdet and another Oxford clerk, Apostle Blake, were arrested. The issue condemned all three. In what Ross has called a "staged political trial", and what her highness wife has called a "justly conducted, if political, trial", quarters 10 May 1477 they were found guilty of "'imagining countryside compassing' the king's death".^[62] That was high treason.

Blake was reprieved after a petition take the stones out of the Bishop of Norwich, nevertheless Burdet and Stacy, still protest their innocence, were taken accomplish Tyburn the following day promote hanged, drawn and quartered.^[42] Nobleness same day, a writ good buy certiorari was dispatched to primacy sheriff of Warwick, transferring glory case to the King's Brass in Westminster.

On learning understanding this writ—which removed the 1 of his arrest by representation Duke—Sir Roger Tocotes surrendered yourself to the Marshalsea Prison; earth was later acquitted of cover-up in the death of position Duchess.^{[note 8]}

Clarence proclaimed Burdet scrupulous. Accompanied by the Minorite clergywoman Dr John Goddard, the Marquis interrupted a royal council gettogether while the King was provide Windsor.

Goddard read out Burdet's gallows statement.^[69] When Edward heard, reports Croyland, "he was seriously displeased and recalled information rest against his brother which subside had long kept in coronet breast". An appeal to illustriousness King's council, however impromptu, was within the boundaries of tolerable political protest, particularly for ingenious leading magnate.

It was, sort through, unwise; in voicing his notion so publicly, Clarence associated yourselves with Burdet's treason. It was also near-treasonable to criticise rendering findings of a royal office as this could be understood as a denunciation of be in touch justice, which was an margin of Divine justice. Clarence's arrogant of spokesman was also irritating.

Goddard had been the churchwoman who vehemently advanced Henry VI'sreturn to the throne in Apr 1470, after Edward had archaic forced into exile by Statesman and Clarence.^[69] Compounding his presence of guilt, Clarence may be blessed with also been circulating rumours on the way out the King's illegitimacy—rumours originally propagate by him and Warwick fuse the late 1460s.

This was also treason, as it implicitly alleged the illegitimacy of Edward's heir, thus endangering the succession.^{[note 9]}

Proposed marriages

Clarence felt that take action had multiple legitimate reasons arrangement unrest. Following his wife's kill, he proposed that he requirement marry Mary of Burgundy, female child of Duke Charles the Daring, who had died in Jan 1477.

This failed to twitch the King's support; he frankly prohibited the match;^{[note 10]}Croyland move that "such an exalted 1 for an ungrateful brother was not to the liking promote to the king". Worse for Clarence, he proposed that their brother-in-law Earl Rivers marry Mary instead.^{[note 11]} While this was at no time likely to come to fruition—Mary was already engaged to Maximilian, son of the Holy Model Emperor—it furthered the Duke's discontent:^[42] Rivers was a Woodville, celebrated to Clarence the whole kinsmen was an enemy.

Worse, say publicly King also vetoed King Apostle of Scotland's suggestion—of which Clarence approved—that the Duke should spliced James's sister Margaret. Hicks tape that, at this point, Clarence might justifiably have recalled county show Edward had tried to pitch his first marriage too. Nobility Duke at this point confidential done nothing new wrong: "the animosity was on the King's side".

Clarence's arrest and fall

Main article: Butt of malmsey

In late June 1477, Clarence was arrested elitist imprisoned in the Tower delightful London on charges of usurping royal authority, or "violating say publicly laws of the realm timorous threatening the safety of book and jurors", states Bellamy.

Smartness remained in custody until mother of parliaments met in January 1478. Disregard for some minor business, that parliament—to which a large numeral of both royal and Woodville clients had got themselves elected—had been called expressly to disgrace him of high treason. Greatness trial and executions of Twynho and Thursby did not garble part of the prosecution attachй case, although during the course have a phobia about the parliament, Roger Twynho famously petitioned that the proceedings folk tale verdict against his grandmother forced to be overturned.

He was in all likelihood aided in this by diverse MPs connected to the carrycase, who included John and William Twynho—sitting for Gloucester and Dorset respectively—and Robert Tocotes, Sir Roger's brother. Tocotes's brother-in-law, the parson of Salisbury, was also move as a Lord spiritual.^[62] Distinction petition was politically opportune, orangutan the King was unlikely let down ignore another opportunity to bring into disfavour his brother further.Croyland reports medium the parliament became a conflict of wills between the brothers: "no one spoke against position Duke but the king, soar no one answered but justness Duke".

Clarence, in desperation, offered to submit to trial infant combat; his request was ignored.^[62] On top of the rate of spreading slander and usurping royal authority were added accusations that Clarence encouraged Edward's subjects to withdraw their allegiance elude him, that the King poisoned his subjects through necromancy careful that Clarence's supporters had bent put on alert to nurture ready to fight at lever hour's warning.

He was further judged guilty himself of sorcery.^{[note 12]} Found guilty, he was sentenced to death.

Although the smart hesitated for several days, probity sentence was carried out crush a private execution within distinction Tower on 18 February 1478. Tradition has it, immortalised brush aside Shakespeare in Richard III,^{[note 13]} that the Duke was subaquatic in a butt of malmsey, a sweet wine from Greece.^{[note 14]}

Although Clarence had procured integrity execution of his kinswoman Ankarette, John Twynho of Bristol seems to have remembered the Marquess sympathetically.

In his will,proven careful 1485, he left a silvery cup to the Abbess infer Shaftesbury inscribed venerabilis dux clarencie ex sua benevolencia michi dedit ("given me by the Aristocrat of Clarence in his benevolence").

Historiography

Although a local affair, the Twynho case has attracted commentary free yourself of modern political and social historians.

The folkloristGeorge Kittredge called boot out a cause célèbre, while finer recently Carpenter has described crimson and the subsequent arrests plus execution of Burdet and Stacy as being of "considerable significance" at the time. To Hicks, Twynho's judicial murder was "one of the most flagrant abuses of noble power in vent medieval England", and a obtrusive example of how an overmighty subject could abuse his disposal.

Ross called it a "scandalous demonstration" of the misuse warm magnate authority, while Rosemary Horrox cites Clarence's over-awing of leadership jury a "classic symptom go along with bastard feudalism".

Clarence's degree of exact responsibility has also been angle. Professor J. R. Lander establish the charges against Twynho boss Thursby too implausible to excellence, calling them "fantastic".^[94] He blames Clarence's actions as the conclude of a "seriously disturbed mind".^[50] However, Hicks criticises this by the same token "too facile a solution", pass for it effectively absolves Clarence style mens rea.

He also argues that there is a falsehood, if Clarence was both lavishly disturbed to believe in Twynho's guilt but sensible enough class recognise the weaknesses in birth case and to stage-manage indication. Conversely, the researcher David Hipshon considers Clarence to have bent merely petulant (albeit to unadorned "alarming degree").

Fleming also sees come interplay between the Twynho topic and national politics, although explicit considers the precise connection little known.

That previously loyal household resist such as Twynho and Thursby, and intimates as Tocotes, rebuff longer felt the Duke's bravado provided security or the future of promotion is apparent. Brothers of Clarence's affinity were unregularity in their loyalties; Carpenter comments that "even in this bulwark of Warwick [Clarence's] power began to fall apart".

It was alleged, for example, that Clarence requested his long time commandeer John Harewood and John Tapton to find a child, 'in likeness' of the Duke's under the weather, and place him in Statesman Castle, and to secrete wreath heir, Edward, abroad for charge, either to Ireland, Flanders crestfallen Burgundy. That Clarence could negation longer rely on his dialogue being faithfully obeyed is express by Harewood and Tapton's ensuing behaviour.

Far from doing chimp the Duke requested, they right away revealed his plans to representation King.^{[note 15]} Ashdown-Hill has supposed an innocent explanation for Clarence to do so: that pursuing the deaths of his little woman and baby in quick transmittal, he was not only jealous but also fearful of another deaths, and particularly the steer of his two-year-old heir.

Just starting out indicating the loss of coherence in Clarence's power base, Burdet—a personal squire—was himself betrayed hunk another Clarence retainer and "constant associate", Alexander Rushton, who locked away also been approached by Burdet and Stacy.

Even before their arrests, relations between Clarence and Striking had been under strain.

In the aftermath, it must have been gauzy that Clarence's fortunes were predisposed to break sooner rather prevail over later. From the King's depression of view, Clarence was proving to be completely ineffectual restructuring a mighty lord in jurisdiction own lands; now he difficult to understand suborned royal justice and least Edward's local royal officials round the corner obey him rather than their King.

This was despite Edward's having made law and structure the centrepiece of his come to power in 1471.

Compared kind Clarence, the Woodville family, prudent by Queen Elizabeth, had full-grown powerful, and with the imperial children growing up, their households were also increasing. For living example, John Twynho, the Bristol registrar, joined the household of honesty Prince of Wales.

Ankarette Twynho was unemployed after Isabel's carnage and would have presumably general employment with any lord annihilate lady, while Tocotes had grow Master of Game for magnanimity Queen. Hicks suggests that honourableness possible disintegration of his connection at the hands of top brother and in-laws was adequate to drive Clarence to be after revenge; it also demonstrated "a talent for swift and sadistic action" in him.

Carpenter agrees that the weakening of Clarence's authority in the Midlands was central to Clarence's response. Bankruptcy may have thought a glowing demonstration of his power condemn his heartland would stop ethics bleeding of retainers to Designer and Woodville. But, she comments, "if this was his decided, the gesture was meaningless":

All Clarence had succeeded in showing was that by the use objection military force near the affections of his domain he could overawe some of the representative gentry ...

where, if he challenging been a real force, her majesty word would normally have anachronistic law.

Hicks speculates that Clarence called for to show he was beg for to be "trifled with", however in fact, by doing fair, he helped prepare the road for his own downfall. Bellamy has argued that Clarence's wielding of the legal machinery purchase personal motives only caused justness subsequent outcry it did being he was out of speak favour and with waning expectancy.

Clarence may have intended Twynho's execution as a lesson mewl just to the community finish large but also a word to his retainers on interpretation penalties of betrayal. Bellamy additionally doubts whether there was every tom basis for the Duke's suspicions. By 1477, his behaviour was "quite irresponsible, even unbalanced".^{[note 18]} Carpenter also suggests that Clarence could quite possibly have corner deranged, possibly delusional following rank loss of his wife; here seems no doubt that grief was genuine.

Lander considers that Clarence's self-control—"never very strong"—completely collapsed.^[42] David Cook suggests ensure Clarence was motivated by "greed and resentment", while Hazel Impale notes that Twynho could conspiracy been one of the professed "flatterers" who reported Clarence's unconfirmed statements to the King, on the assumption that not directly, then possibly alongside men such as Tocotes.^{[note 19]}

Notes

References

Bibliography